Template:Very long
Republic of Kosovo
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Emblem
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Anthem: Himni i Republikës së Kosovës "Anthem of the Republic of Kosovo" | |
Location in Europe Location in Europe | |
Status | Template:Unbulletedlist |
Capital and largest city | Pristinaa 42°40′N 21°10′E / 42.667°N 21.167°E Fatal error: The format of the coordinate could not be determined. Parsing failed. |
Official languages |
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Regional languages |
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Ethnic groups (2019)[2] |
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Religion (2015)[3] |
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Demonym(s) |
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Government | Unitary parliamentary republic |
• President | Vjosa Osmani |
• Prime Minister | Albin Kurti |
• Chairman of the Assembly | Glauk Konjufca |
Legislature | Assembly |
Establishment | |
• Kosovo Vilayet | 1877 |
• Treaty of London | 1913 |
• Autonomous Province within Yugoslavia | 31 January 1946 |
• Republic of Kosova | 2 July 1990 |
• Kumanovo Agreement | 9 June 1999 |
• UN Administration | 10 June 1999 |
• Declaration of independence | 17 February 2008 |
• End of Steering Group supervision | 10 September 2012 |
• Brussels Agreement | 19 April 2013 |
Area | |
• Total | 10,887 km2 (4,203 sq mi) |
• Water (%) | 1.0[4] |
Population | |
• 2022 estimate | ![]() |
• Density | 159/km2 (411.8/sq mi) |
GDP (PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | ![]() |
• Per capita | ![]() |
GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | ![]() |
• Per capita | ![]() |
Gini (2017) | ![]() low |
HDI (2016) | ![]() high |
Currency | Euro (€)b (EUR) |
Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
Date format | dd.mm.yyyy |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +383 |
ISO 3166 code | XK |
Internet TLD | .xkc (proposed) |
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Kosovo (Template:Lang-sq Template:IPA-sq; Template:Lang-sr-Cyrl Template:IPA-sr), officially the Republic of Kosovo (Template:Lang-sq; Serbian: Република Косово, romanized: Republika Kosovo), is a country in Southeast Europe with partial diplomatic recognition. Kosovo lies landlocked in the centre of the Balkans, bordered by Serbia to the north and east, North Macedonia to the southeast, Albania to the southwest, and Montenegro to the west. Most of central Kosovo is dominated by the vast plains and fields of Metohija and the Kosovo field. The Accursed Mountains and Šar Mountains rise in the southwest and southeast, respectively. Its capital and largest city is Pristina.
The Dardani tribe emerged in Kosovo and established the Kingdom of Dardania in the 4th century BC. It was later annexed by the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. The territory remained in the Byzantine Empire, facing Slavic invasions from the 6th-7th century AD. Control shifted between the Byzantines and the First Bulgarian Empire. In the 13th century, Kosovo became integral to the Serbian medieval state and the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Ottoman expansion in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th century led to the decline and fall of the Serbian Empire; the Battle of Kosovo of 1389 is considered to be one of the defining moments. The Ottoman Empire fully conquered Kosovo after the Second Battle of Kosovo, ruling for nearly five centuries until 1912. Kosovo was the center of the Albanian Renaissance and experienced the Albanian revolts of 1910 and 1912. After the Balkan Wars, it was ceded to Serbia and Montenegro and became an Autonomous Province within Yugoslavia. Tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and Serb communities simmered through the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, culminating in the Kosovo War of 1998 and 1999, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army and the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo.
Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008,[13] and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 97 member states of the United Nations. Although Serbia does not officially recognise Kosovo as a sovereign state and continues to claim it as its constituent Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, it accepts the governing authority of the Kosovo institutions as a part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement.[14]
Kosovo is a developing country, with an upper-middle-income economy. It has experienced solid economic growth over the last decade as measured by international financial institutions since the onset of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Kosovo is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, EBRD, Venice Commission, the International Olympic Committee, and has applied for membership in the Council of Europe, UNESCO, Interpol, and for observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. In December 2022, Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.[15]
Name[]
Kingdom of Dardania in the 3rd century BCE.
The entire region that today corresponds to the territory is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova (definite form, Template:IPA-sq) or Kosovë ("indefinite" form, Template:IPA-sq). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas; the term Kosovo (Косово) is used for the eastern part centred on the historical Kosovo Field, while the western part is called Metohija (known as Dukagjini in Albanian).[16]
Kosovo (Template:Lang-sr-Cyrl, Template:IPA-sr) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of kos (кос) "blackbird", an ellipsis for Kosovo Polje, 'blackbird field', the name of a plain situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field.[17][18] The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864.
Albanians also refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of an ancient kingdom and later Roman province, which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is dervied from the ancient tribe of the Dardani, which is considered be related to the Proto-Albanian term dardā, which means "pear" (Modern Albanian: dardhë).[19] The former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. In recent years, the flag of Dardania has gained official status (Presidential seal and standard) and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency.
The current borders of Kosovo were drawn while part of Yugoslavia in 1945, when the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija (1945–1963) was created as an administrative division of the new People's Republic of Serbia. In 1963, it was raised from the level of an autonomous region to the level of an autonomous province as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1963–1968). In 1968, the dual name "Kosovo and Metohija" was reduced to a simple "Kosovo" in the name of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo. In 1990, the province was renamed the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.[20]
The official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally.[21] Additionally, as a result of an arrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organizations under the title "Kosovo*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence". This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012.[22]
History[]
Template:Very long section
Antiquity[]
Goddess on the Throne is one of the most significant archaeological artifacts of Kosovo and has been adopted as the symbol of Pristina.
The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favorable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory. The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organized by the Austro-Hungarian army during the World War I in the Illyrian tumuli burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the district of Prizren.[23] Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the Stone Age; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the Drin River, Grnčar Cave in Viti Municipality and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in Peja Municipality of Peja.
The earliest archaeological evidence of organized settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures.[24] Vlashnjë and Runik are important sites of the Neolithic era with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near Vlashnjë being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.[25] Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay ocarina, which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.[24] The beginning of the Bronze Age coincides with the presence of tumuli burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of Romajë.[23]
Ruins of Ancient Ulpiana situated south-east of Pristina. The city played an important role in the development of one of the most important cities in the Roman province of Dardania.
The Dardani were the most important Paleo-Balkan tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named Dardania after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania.
Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianization of parts of Dardania.[26] The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.[27]
The Roman state annexed Dardania by the first century AD. The importance of the area lay in its high mining potential, highlighted by the large mining complex of Municipium Dardanorum and the designation of part of the region as an imperial mining district.[citation needed] Kosovo was part of two provinces, Praevalitana and Dardania. Ulpiana is the most important municipium which developed in Kosovo.[28] It was refounded as Justiniana Secunda under Justinian in the 6th century AD.[29]
Middle Ages[]
Gračanica Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Visoki Dečani Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the Byzantine Empire. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the Slavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries.
Toponymic evidence suggests that Albanian was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.[30][31]
There is one intriguing line of argument to suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement. Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. Under a series of ambitious rulers, the Bulgarians pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's they had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of Serbian Principality.[32]
The First Bulgarian Empire acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was restored by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian Uprising of Georgi Voiteh traveled from their center in Skopje to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited Mihailo Vojislavljević of Duklja to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son, Constantine Bodin with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians".[33] Demetrios Chomatenos is the last Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.[34] Stefan Nemanja had seized the area along the White Drin in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing Nemanjić rule. Konstantin Jireček concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from Gjakova and Prizren area, prior to the Slavic expansion.[35]
Map of Southeastern Europe in 1265, including the Medieval Kingdom of Serbia
During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the Serbian Kingdom.[36] In the late 13th century, the seat of the Serbian Archbishopric was moved to Peja, and rulers centred themselves between Prizren and Skopje,[37] during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected,[38] Stefan Dušan using Prizren Fortress as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the House of Branković.[36][39] During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the Principality of Dukagjini, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the League of Lezhë.[40]
Medieval Monuments in Kosovo is a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries. The constructions were founded by members of the Nemanjić dynasty, a prominent dynasty of Middle Age Serbia.[41]
Ottoman rule[]
The Imperial Mosque of Pristina built by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, 1461
During the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Ottoman forces defeated a coalition led by Lazar of Serbia.[42][43]
Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate province (vilayet). During this time, Islam was introduced to the population.
Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns. The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam. Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, the spread of Islam greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs. Centuries earlier, Albanians of Kosovo were predominantly Christian and Albanians and Serbs for the most part co-existed peacefully. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favorably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.[44]
Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, with "little cause of unrest", according to author Dennis Hupchik. "If anything, they grew important in Ottoman internal affairs."[45] In the 19th century, there was an awakening of ethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.[43] The ethnic Albanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the League of Prizren (Lidhja e Prizrenit) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,[46] although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.[47] The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a national identity among Albanians,[48] whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbia wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.
The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the expulsion of the Albanians in 1877–1878 from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia.[49][50] During and after the Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–78, between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the Serb army from the Sanjak of Niš and fled to the Kosovo Vilayet.[51][52][53][54][55][56] According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs).[44] In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica and Pristina, and massacred Serbs in the area of Kolašin.[57][58]
The city of Prizren was the cultural and intellectual centre of Kosovo during the Ottoman period in the Middle Ages and is now the historic capital of Kosovo.
Ethnic composition of Kosovo during Ottoman rule[]
Template:Undue weight section While Kosovo as a whole came out of its Ottoman rule with an Albanian-majority population, the ethnic composition of Kosovo during the early stages of Ottoman rule is a matter of dispute in literature. Early literature suggested that the majority of Kosovo's population was Serb until the 19th century, however, research in recent decades has found evidence that Albanians formed a majority in many parts of Kosovo at least in the 16th and 17th centuries, at a time when migration rates were very low.[59] In general, recent literature suggests that Albanians formed a majority in the western and central parts of the modern country, while Serbs were concentrated in the north and east.
Banac claims that Serbs likely formed a majority of Kosovo from the 8th to the mid-19th century.[60][61] Fine claims that Albanians lived in the mountainous areas of modern Albania (from Krujë to the Šar mountain range).[62] Cirkovic claims that Kosovo was depopulated and the Albanians used this opportunity to expand into it from their previous settlements in modern-day northern Albania.[47] Such views are in line with the theory that the Great Migrations of the Serbs in 1690 created a population vacuum, which was filled by the Albanians. Banac claims that the Albanians expanded in a similar way into northwestern Macedonia, although he claims that some of them might have been autochthonous to the region.[63]
According to Paul Cohen, in the early sixteenth century, a large migration of Albanians into Kosovo resulted in a sizeable ethnic Albanian presence in some parts of Western Kosovo which continued into the next century.[44] Historian Noel Malcolm challenges this view, using 15th-18th century Ottoman immigration documents and 17th century northern Albanian Catholic emigration sources to argue that the majority of the migrants into the Kosovo region during this period were not Albanian, indicating that Albanians that lived in Kosovo up to that time were indigenous.[59]
The city of Gjakova was established in the 16th century along an important trading route between Shkodër and Prizren.
After the occupation of Kosovo by the Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683–99, and subsequent Ottoman reconquest,[64] the Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III led thousands of people from Kosovo to the Christian north. This came to be known as the Great Serb Migration, which, according to some historians, was a defining moment that led to Albanians becoming the majority of the population in Kosovo. Sugar claims that "under the leadership of...Arsenije...some 200,000 Serbs moved northward with the retreating Habsburg forces in 1690...Southern Hungary gained a large number of Serbs, and Albanians filled the void in what is today known as the Kosovo-Metohija region".[65] A similar view is taken by Jelavich, who claims that thirty thousand families migrated with Arsenije and that "this great emigration...contributed to the alteration of the ethnic composition of the Kosovo area...With the departure of the Serbs and the large-scale immigration of Albanians, the region acquired an Albanian majority."[66] However, Arsenije's own writings claim that he reached Hungary with 30,000-40,000 souls, not families, and Malcolm adds that most of those people likely came from the Niš-Belgrade area.[67]
The works of Malcolm and Anscombe additionally suggest that while the eastern part of Kosovo was most likely dominated by Serbs, the western and central parts of Kosovo had an Albanian majority in early 17th century, before the 1690 migration of the Serbs. Using contemporary Ottoman documents, Anscombe shows that Prizren, Vushtrri, and the Drenica Valley had an Albanian majority in the 17th century, while Gjakova was founded by Albanians in the 16th century.[68] A report by Pjetër Mazreku, a Catholic priest, claims that in 1624 "Prizren's population was made of 200 Catholic inhabitants, 600 'Serviani', and 12,000 'Muslims, almost all of them Albanians'."[69] A similar account is provided by a German source, which suggests that when, during the Great Turkish War, General Piccolomini arrived in Prizren in 1689, he was "greeted by 5,000 Arnauts".[69] Anscombe further claims that Peja had a continuous presence of the Kelmendi tribe.[68] An Ottoman tax register from 1582 suggests that Peja had 158 households, of which 143 were Muslim.[70] Central Kosovo, as well as the cities of Prizren, Gjakova, and the region of Has regularly supplied the Ottoman forces with Albanian levies and mercenaries.[68] The situation was different in the east of Kosovo though, with the majority of the population in the 17th century likely being Serb, with the exception of towns.[59] Camillo Contarini suggests that in 1689 much of eastern Kosovo had an Orthodox population, with the exception of Pristina, which "had a mostly Muslim population of 3,000 households." In a further note, he contrasts the 'Arnauts' from Pristina with the 'others of the surrounding places'. Malcolm believes that the 'Orthodox others' "are consistent with the fact that this part of Kosovo had a Serb Orthodox majority."[71]
Ottoman defters of the 15th-16th centuries indicate a similar picture. They show that Plains of Dukagjin in western Kosovo were inhabited by a majority of Albanian Christians of both the Orthodox and Catholic rites. The Slavic population was a small minority that was concentrated in the Nahiya of Peja and a small pocket in the Nahiya of Prizren; the documentation of Albanians in Peja at the end of the 15th century presupposes that Kosovo Albanians were early inhabitants of the region that pre-dated the Ottoman period.[72]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia[]
An Albanian uprising in 1912 exposed the empire's northern territories in Kosovo and Novi Pazar, which led to an invasion by the Kingdom of Montenegro. The Ottomans suffered a serious defeat at the hands of Albanians in 1912, culminating in the Ottoman loss of most of its Albanian-inhabited lands. The Albanians threatened to march all the way to Salonika and reimpose Abdul Hamid.[73]
Division of Kosovo vilayet between the Kingdom of Serbia (yellow) and the Kingdom of Montenegro (green) following the Balkan Wars 1913.
A wave of Albanians in the Ottoman army ranks also deserted during this period, refusing to fight their own kin. The rise of nationalism hampered relations between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, due to influence from Russians, Austrians and Ottomans.[74] After the Ottomans' defeat in the First Balkan War, the 1913 Treaty of London was signed with Metohija ceded to the Kingdom of Montenegro and eastern Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Serbia.[75] During the Balkan Wars, over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and around 20,000 were killed.[76] Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and World War II, causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to sharply decline after a period of growth.[59]
Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.[77] The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of Ilija Garašanin and Jovan Cvijić.[78]
German soldiers set fire to a Serbian village near Mitrovica, circa 1941.
In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, the Allied Powers pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo.
A new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (oblast) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 a large-scale Serbian re-colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.[77]
Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.[79][59] In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of World War II.[80]
After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.[81] Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers,[82] and killed an estimated 10,000 and expelled or transferred 70,000 to 100,000 more to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.[83] Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.[81] An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.[84] There had been large-scale Albanian immigration from Albania to Kosovo, by some scholars estimated in the range from 72,000[85][83] to 260,000 people. Some historians and contemporary references emphasise that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.[86]
Communist Yugoslavia[]
The flag of the Albanian minority of Kosovo in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
The province in its current form first took shape in 1945 as the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija, with a final demarcation in 1959.[87][88] Until 1945, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo in the late modern period had been the Vilayet of Kosovo, a political unit created by the Ottoman Empire in 1877. However, its borders were dissimilar to the current borders.[89]
Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.[90] Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the Stalinist regime of Enver Hoxha of Albania.[90] In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.[90] High-ranking Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's nomenklatura.[91]
Fadil Hoxha, the vice-president of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, from 1978 to 1979.
Islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.[90] At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.[90] Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, caling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.[90]
After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.[92] As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.[92] Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.[92] These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia.[93] By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.[94]
Republics and provinces of the SFR Yugoslavia.
In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the League of Prizren.[90] Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a constituent republic, alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.[95] Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.[95] In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded – including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.[95]
While Albanians in the region had the highest birth rates in Europe, other areas of Yugoslavia including Serbia had low birth rates. Increased urbanization and economic development led to higher settlements of Albanian workers into Serb-majority areas, as Serbs departed in response to the economic climate for more favorable real estate conditions in Serbia.[96] While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.[97]
Even though they were disproved by police statistics,[97][page needed] they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.[98] The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.[99] During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.[100][101] The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.[102]
Kosovo War[]
Ibrahim Rugova played a significant role in advocating for the rights of Kosovo Albanians and their aspirations for self-determination.
Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.[103] Kosovar Albanians responded with a non-violent separatist movement, employing widespread civil disobedience and creation of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the independence of Kosovo.[104]
In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the Republic of Kosova, and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.[105] In May 1992, Ibrahim Rugova was elected its president in an election in which only Kosovo Albanians participated.[106] During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially recognised by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the Dayton Agreement of November 1995, which ended the Bosnian War. By 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla paramilitary group that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a Greater Albania,[107] had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the Kosovo War.[103][108]
By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by Richard Holbrooke. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the Račak massacre, which attracted further international attention to the conflict.[103] Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the Rambouillet Accords, calling for the restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and the deployment of NATO peacekeeping forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,[109] though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the Security Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.[110]
Kosovar Albanian soldiers holding pictures in memory of the men who were killed or went missing in the Krusha massacres.
During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo. In 1999 more than 11,000 deaths were reported to the office of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia prosecutor Carla Del Ponte.[111] As of 2010[update], some 3,000 people were still missing, including 2,500 Albanians, 400 Serbs and 100 Roma.[112] By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. During the Kosovo War, over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[113][114][115][116][117] After the Kosovo and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and IDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.[118][119][120]
Serbian and other children refugees, Cernica, Gjilan.
In some villages under Albanian control in 1998, militants drove ethnic Serbs from their homes.[citation needed] Some of those who remained are unaccounted for and are presumed to have been abducted by the KLA and killed. The KLA detained an estimated 85 Serbs during its 19 July 1998 attack on Rahovec. 35 of these were subsequently released but the others remained. On 22 July 1998, the KLA briefly took control of the Belaćevac mine near the town of Obiliq. Nine Serb mineworkers were captured that day and they remain on the International Committee of the Red Cross's list of the missing and are presumed to have been killed.[121] In August 1998, 22 Serbian civilians were reportedly killed in the village of Klečka, where the police claimed to have discovered human remains and a kiln used to cremate the bodies.[121][122] In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the Lake Radonjić massacre.[121] Human Rights Watch have raised questions about the validity of at least some of these allegations made by Serbian authorities.[123]
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for crimes against humanity and war crimes committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.[124] Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.[125][126][127][128]
In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.[129]
"Heroinat" (Heroines) monument in Pristina. It is dedicated to women victims of sexual violence during the Kosovo War, most of whom were Albanian women.[130]
Postwar[]
US President Bill Clinton with Albanian children during his visit to Kosovo, June 1999.
On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.[131]
Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000[132] to 250,000.[133] Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.[134] Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.[135] In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the Kosovo unrest.[136][137] 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.
International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[138]
In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[139]
Camp Bondsteel is the main base of the United States Army under KFOR command in south-eastern part of Kosovo near the city of Ferizaj.
Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.[140] Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.[141]
After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "Troika" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank G. Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.[142] A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the Serbian presidential elections (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, Tomislav Nikolić.[143]
In November 2001, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe supervised the first elections for the Assembly of Kosovo.[144] After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected Ibrahim Rugova as president and Bajram Rexhepi (PDK) as Prime Minister.[145] After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in Ramush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.[146]
Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the Democratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with current president Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.[147] The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.[148]
Declaration of independence[]
The Newborn monument unveiled at the celebration of the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence proclaimed earlier that day, 17 February 2008, Pristina.
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.[149] As of 4 September 2020, 112 UN states recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia;[150] 15 states have subsequently withdrawn that recognition.[151][152] Of the UN Security Council members, while the USA, UK and France do recognise Kosovo's independence, Russia and China do not.[153] Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank,[154][155] though not of the United Nations.
The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.[156] On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law – in particular UNSCR 1244 – which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.[157]
Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the Brussels Agreement, an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.[158] The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.[159] Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organized two meetings, in Brussels on 27 February 2023 and Ohrid on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalize ties between the two countries, which includes recognizing "each other's documents such as passports and license plates".[160]
Governance[]
File:Vjosa Osmani1.jpg | File:Albin Kurti (2023-02-18).jpg |
Vjosa Osmani President |
Albin Kurti Prime Minister |
Kosovo is a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic. It is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions, which derive from the constitution, although, until the Brussels Agreement, North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. Legislative functions are vested in both the Parliament and the ministers within their competencies. The Government exercises the executive power and is composed of the Prime Minister as the head of government, the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries.
The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a Constitutional Court, and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. All citizens are equal before the law and gender equality is ensured by the constitution.[161][162] The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.
The president serves as the head of state and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a secret ballot by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.[163] The Prime Minister serves as the head of government elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.
Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organized crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.[164]
Foreign relations[]
The foreign relations of Kosovo are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Pristina. As of 2023[update], 101 out of 193 United Nations member states recognise the Republic of Kosovo. Within the European Union, it is recognized by 22 of 27 members and is a potential candidate for the future enlargement of the European Union.[165][166] On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.[15]
Kosovo is a member of several international organizations including the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, International Road and Transport Union, Regional Cooperation Council, Council of Europe Development Bank, Venice Commission and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.[167] In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of UNESCO fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join.[168] 23 countries maintain embassies in Kosovo.[169] Kosovo maintains 24 diplomatic missions and 28 consular missions abroad.[170][171]
The relations with Albania are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture. The Albanian language is one of the official languages of Kosovo. Albania has an embassy in the capital Pristina and Kosovo an embassy in Tirana. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the Republic of Kosova. Albania was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.
From 1 January 2024 Kosovo nationals will be exempt from visa requirements within the Schengen Area.[172]
Law[]
The Kosovo Police is the main law enforcement agency in Kosovo.
The judicial system of Kosovo follows a civil law framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts. Administered by the judicial council in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, a constitutional court and an independent prosecutorial institution. Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the Kosovo Police assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country.
Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, the Ahtisaari Plan introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including the International Civilian Office (ICO) and the European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX).[173] The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority. These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution.
The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by the International Steering Group (ISG) comprising states that recognized Kosovo. Serbia and non-recognizing states did not acknowledge the ICO. Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008. It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence. The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law. Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities.[174]
Military[]
The Kosovo Security Force is the military of Kosovo.
The Kosovo Security Force (KSF) is the national security force of Kosovo commissioned with the task of preserving and safeguarding the country's territorial integrity, national sovereignty and the security interests of its population.[175] Functioning under the president of Kosovo as the commander-in-chief, the security force adheres to the principle of non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal protection for its personnel regardless of gender or ethnicity.[175][176] Kosovo's notable challenges are identified in the realms of persistent conflicts and societal safety and security, both of which are intertwined with the country's diplomatic ties to neighboring countries and its domestic social and political stability.[177]
In 2008, under the leadership of NATO, the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC) undertook preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. A significant milestone occurred in 2014 when the government officially announced its decision to establish a Ministry of Defense in 2019, with the aim of transforming the existing Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces. This transformation would entail aligning the armed forces with the high standards expected of NATO members, reflecting Kosovo's aspiration to join the alliance in the future.[178] Subsequently, in December 2018, the government enacted legislation to redefine the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force, effecting its transformation into anarmy. Concurrently, the establishment of a Ministry of Defense was set in motion, further solidifying these developments and ensuring the necessary infrastructure and oversight for the newly formed armed forces.[179]
Administrative divisions[]
Kosovo is divided into seven districts (Template:Lang-sq; Template:Lang-sr-Latn), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations. The districts are further subdivided into 38 municipalities (komunë; opština). The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the District of Pristina with the capital in Pristina, having a surface area of 2,470 km2 (953.67 sq mi) and a population of 477,312.
Template:Kosovo Districts |
|
See also[]
- List of Kosovo Albanians
- Outline of Kosovo
- Partition of Albania
References[]
- ↑ "Municipal language compliance in Kosovo". OSCE Minsk Group. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish as a language in official use.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ "Kosovo Population 2019". World Population Review. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ Cite error: Invalid
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- ↑ "Water percentage in Kosovo (Facts about Kosovo; 2011 Agriculture Statistics)". Kosovo Agency of Statistics, KAS. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017.
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: - ↑ "Population of Kosovo". 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "World Economic Outlook". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. June 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ "GINI index (World Bank estimate)–Kosovo". World Bank. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
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: - ↑ "Kosovo Human Development Report 2016". United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 19 October 2016. Archived from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Ligji Nr. 06/L-012 për Kryeqytetin e Republikës së Kosovës, Prishtinën" . Gazeta Zyrtare e Republikës së Kosovës. 6 June 2018. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
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: - ↑ "Foreign travel advice Kosovo". www.gov.uk. UK Government. Archived from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
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: - ↑ "Kosovo loses millions of euros from the use of the Serbian dinar". Kosova Press. 12 September 2020. Archived from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
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: - ↑ "Points of dispute between Kosovo and Serbia". France 24. 9 November 2018. Archived from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ "Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo" (PDF). International Court of Justice (ICJ). 22 July 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ Gvosdev, Nikolas K. (24 April 2013). "Kosovo and Serbia Make a Deal". Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Kosovo formally applies for EU membership". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Serbia". Parlament.gov.rs. Archived from the original on 27 November 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ IBP, Inc. (2015). Kosovo Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments. International Business Publications Inc.. p. 9.
- ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. 'Kosovar'.
- ↑ Albanian Etymological Dictionary, V.Orel, Koninklijke Brill, Leiden Boston Köln 1998, p. 56
- ↑ Shelley, Fred M. (2013). Nation Shapes: The Story Behind the World's Borders. p. 73. ISBN 9781610691062. https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&pg=PA73.
- ↑ "Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019 – via constituteproject.org.
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: - ↑ "Agreement on regional representation of Kosovo". B92. 25 February 2012. http://www.b92.net/eng/insight/pressroom.php?yyyy=2012&mm=02&nav_id=78973.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Schermer, Shirley; Shukriu, Edi; Deskaj, Sylvia (2011). Marquez-Grant, Nicholas; Fibiger, Linda. eds. The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation: An International Guide to Laws and Practice in the Excavation and Treatment of Archaeological Human Remains. Taylor & Francis. p. 235. ISBN 978-1136879562. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzi4N-74QmAC. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Berisha, Milot (2012). "Archaeological Guide of Kosovo" (PDF). Ministry of Culture of Kosovo. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
{{cite web}}
: - ↑ Shukriu, Edi (2006). "Spirals of the prehistoric open rock painting from Kosova". Proceedings of the XV World Congress of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences 35: 59. https://www.academia.edu/1787676. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
- ↑ Wilkes, John (1996). The Illyrians. Wiley. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-631-19807-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
- ↑ Papazoglu, Fanula (1978). The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians. Amsterdam: Hakkert. p. 131. ISBN 9789025607937. https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
- ↑ Teichner 2015, p. 81.
- ↑ Teichner 2015, p. 83.
- ↑ Curtis, Matthew Cowan (2012). Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence (Thesis). The Ohio State University. p. 42. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1338406907.
- ↑ Prendergast, Eric (2017). The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area (Thesis). UC Berkeley. p. 80. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6.
- ↑ Malcolm, Noel (2002). Kosovo: A Short History. ISBN 9780330412247. https://books.google.com/books?id=_FMZQQAACAAJ&q=kosovo+a+short+history. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ↑ McGeer, Eric (2019). Byzantium in the Time of Troubles: The Continuation of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (1057–1079). BRILL. p. 149. ISBN 978-9004419407. https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ↑ Prinzing, Günter (2008). "Demetrios Chomatenos, Zu seinem Leben und Wirken". Demetrii Chomateni Ponemata diaphora: [Das Aktencorpus des Ohrider Erzbischofs Demetrios. Einleitung, kritischer Text und Indices]. Walter de Gruyter. p. 30. ISBN 978-3110204506. https://books.google.com/books?id=vllZG5zOxmMC. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ↑ Ducellier, Alain (1999-10-21). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 5, c.1198-c.1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 780. ISBN 978-0-521-36289-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA781. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Sharpe, M. E. (2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe. p. 364. ISBN 9780765618337. https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC.
- ↑ Denis P Hupchik. The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism. p. 93 "Dusan.. established his new state primate's seat at Peć (Ipek), in Kosovo"
- ↑ Bieber, p. 12
- ↑ RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute, Том 3. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
- ↑ Sellers, Mortimer (2010). The Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective. Springer. p. 207. ISBN 978-90-481-3748-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC&pg=PA207. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ↑ "Medieval Monuments in Kosovo". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
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: - ↑ Barbara Jelavich (1983). History of the Balkans. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-0-521-27458-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Essays: 'The battle of Kosovo' by Noel Malcolm, Prospect Magazine May 1998 issue 30". Prospect-magazine.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
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: - ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Cohen, Paul A. (2014). History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis. Columbia University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-23153-729-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ↑ The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism, Dennis Hupchik
- ↑ Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know by Tim Judah, Publisher Oxford University Press, US, 2008 ISBN 0-19-537673-0, 978-0-19-537673-9 p. 36
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 Cirkovic. p. 244.
- ↑ George Gawlrych, The Crescent and the Eagle, (Palgrave/Macmillan, London, 2006), ISBN 1-84511-287-3
- ↑ Frantz, Eva Anne (2009). "Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 29 (4): 460–461. doi:10.1080/13602000903411366.
- ↑ Müller, Dietmar (2009). "Orientalism and Nation: Jews and Muslims as Alterity in Southeastern Europe in the Age of Nation-States, 1878–1941". East Central Europe 36 (1): 70. doi:10.1163/187633009x411485.
- ↑ Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) [The reasons for the manner of the exodus of Albanian refugees from the territory of the Sanjak of Niš to Kosovo (1878–1878)] ". Studia Albanica. 1: 189–190.
- ↑ Rizaj, Skënder (1981). "Nënte Dokumente angleze mbi Lidhjen Shqiptare të Prizrenit (1878–1880) [Nine English documents about the League of Prizren (1878–1880)]". Gjurmine Albanologjike (Seria e Shkencave Historike). 10: 198.
- ↑ Şimşir, Bilal N, (1968). Rumeli'den Türk göçleri. Emigrations turques des Balkans [Turkish emigrations from the Balkans]. Vol I. Belgeler-Documents. p. 737.
- ↑ Bataković, Dušan (1992). The Kosovo Chronicles. Plato. http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html.
- ↑ Elsie, Robert (2010). Historical Dictionary of Kosovo. Scarecrow Press. p. xxxii. ISBN 9780333666128.
- ↑ Stefanović, Djordje (2005). "Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939." European History Quarterly. 35. (3): 470.
- ↑ Iain King; Whit Mason (2006). Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo. Cornell University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8014-4539-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ↑ Skendi, Stavro (2015). The Albanian National Awakening. Cornell University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4008-4776-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 Malcolm 1998.
- ↑ Banac, p. 42.
- ↑ The Balkans: A Post-Communist History, I Jeffries, R Bideleux 2007, p. 513
- ↑ Fine (1994), p. 51.
- ↑ Banac, p. 46.
- ↑ "WHKMLA: Habsburg-Ottoman War, 1683–1699". Zum.de. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
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: - ↑ Sugar, Peter F. (1977). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 222.
- ↑ Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 92-93.
- ↑ Malcolm, Noel (2020). Rebels, Believers, Survivors: Studies in the History of the Albanians. Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 9780198857297. https://books.google.com/books?id=oevqDwAAQBAJ.
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 Anscombe, Frederick F. (2006). "The Ottoman Empire in recent international politics – II: the case of Kosovo" Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The International History Review 28 (4) 758–793.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Malcolm 2020, p. 136.
- ↑ Malcolm 2020, p. 346.
- ↑ Malcolm 2020, p. 133.
- ↑ Pulaha, Selami (1974). Defter i Sanxhakut të Shkodrës 1485. Academy of Sciences of Albania. pp. 34, 40. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3ma9plMXxAEZi1PZTVXMXV1NFE/edit.
- ↑ Malcolm 1998, p. 248.
- ↑ See: Isa Blumi, Rethinking the Late Ottoman Empire: A Comparative Social and Political History of Albania and Yemen, 1878–1918 (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2003)
- ↑ "Treaty of London, 1913". Mtholyoke.edu. Archived from the original on 1 May 1997. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
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: - ↑ Malcolm, Noel (1999). "Kosovo – A Short History". Verfassung in Recht und Übersee 32 (3): 422–423. doi:10.5771/0506-7286-1999-3-422. ISSN 0506-7286.
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur, Ramesh (eds). Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective action, and International Citizenship. New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.
- ↑ I. Mehmeti, Leandrit; Radeljic, Branislav (24 March 2017). Kosovo and Serbia: Contested Options and Shared Consequences. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0822944690. https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
- ↑ Daskalovski, Židas. Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism and Self-determination. In: Florian Bieber & Zidas Daskalovski (eds.), Understanding the War in Kosovo. L.: Frank Cass, 2003. ISBN 0-7146-5391-8. pp. 13–30.
- ↑ Ramet, Sabrina P. The Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Ends: Kosovo in Serbian Perception. In Mary Buckley & Sally N. Cummings (eds.), Kosovo: Perceptions of War and Its Aftermath. L. – N.Y.: Continuum Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8264-5670-7. pp. 30–46.
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 Malcolm 1998, p. 312.
- ↑ Bieber, Florian; Daskalovski, Zidas (2004). Understanding the War in Kosovo. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-13576-155-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=6OiQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ↑ 83.0 83.1 Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-building and Legitimation, 1918-2005. Indiana University Press. pp. 114, 141. ISBN 978-0-25334-656-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&pg=PA114. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ↑ Frank, Chaim (2010). Petersen, Hans-Christian; Salzborn, Samuel. eds. Antisemitism in Eastern Europe: History and Present in Comparison. Bern: Peter Lang. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-3-631-59828-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC.
- ↑ Vickers, Miranda (1998), Between Serb and Albanian : a history of Kosovo, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 9781850652786, https://books.google.com/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22encouraged+an+extensive%22, "The Italian occupation force encouraged an extensive settlement programme involving up to 72,000 Albanians from Albania in Kosovo"
- ↑ Malcolm 1998, pp. 312-313.
- ↑ Flere, Sergej; Klanjšek, Rudi (2019). The Rise and Fall of Socialist Yugoslavia: Elite Nationalism and the Collapse of a Federation. United Kingdom: Lexington Books. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-4985-4197-8.
- ↑ Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2002). Serbia: The History behind the Name. London: Hurst & Company. p. 159. ISBN 9781850654773.
- ↑ Fowkes, Ben (2002). Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in the Post-Communist World. United States of America: Palgrave. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-349-41937-1.
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3 90.4 90.5 90.6 Independent International Commission on Kosovo. The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 35.
- ↑ Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 295.
- ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 296.
- ↑ Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 301.
- ↑ Independent International Commission on Kosovo. The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. pp. 35–36.
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 Independent International Commission on Kosovo. The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 36.
- ↑ Qirezi, Arben (2017). "Settling the Self Determination Dispute in Kosovo". In Mehmeti, Leandrit I.; Radeljić, Branislav. Kosovo and Serbia: Contested Options and Shared Consequences. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 53–57. ISBN 978-0-8229-8157-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76.
- ↑ 97.0 97.1 Prentiss, Craig R, ed. (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6701-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
- ↑ New York Times 1981-04-19, "One Storm has Passed but Others are Gathering in Yugoslavia"
- ↑ Elsie, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Kosova. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8108-5309-4.
- ↑ Reuters 1986-05-27, "Kosovo Province Revives Yugoslavia's Ethnic Nightmare"
- ↑ Christian Science Monitor 1986-07-28, "Tensions among ethnic groups in Yugoslavia begin to boil over"
- ↑ New York Times 1987-06-27, "Belgrade Battles Kosovo Serbs"
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Rogel, Carole (2003). "Kosovo: Where It All Began". International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 17 (1): 167–182. doi:10.1023/A:1025397128633. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025397128633. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
- ↑ Clark, Howard. Civil Resistance in Kosovo. London: Pluto Press, 2000. ISBN 0-7453-1569-0.
- ↑ Malcolm 1998, pp. 346-347.
- ↑ Babuna, Aydın. Albanian national identity and Islam in the post-Communist era. Perceptions 8(3), September–November 2003: 43–69.
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- State-building in Kosovo. A plural policing perspective. Maklu. 2015. p. 53. ISBN 9789046607497. https://books.google.com/books?id=YS15BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. 2012. p. 69. ISBN 9780262305129. https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA69. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2008. p. 249. ISBN 9780313346422. https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA249. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- "Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2014. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army.
- "Albanian Insurgents Keep NATO Forces Busy". Time. 6 March 2001. http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,101938,00.html.
- ↑ Rama, Shinasi A. The Serb-Albanian War, and the International Community's Miscalculations Archived 29 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine. The International Journal of Albanian Studies, 1 (1998), pp. 15–19.
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: - ↑ Larry Minear; Ted van Baarda; Marc Sommers (2000). "NATO and Humanitarian Action in the Kosovo Crisis" (PDF). Brown University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2008.
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: - ↑ "World: Europe UN gives figure for Kosovo dead". BBC News. 10 November 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm.
- ↑ KiM Info-Service (7 June 2000). "3,000 missing in Kosovo". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm.
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: - ↑ Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (2012). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 30. ISBN 9780230201316. https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29.
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: - ↑ "Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo". OSCE. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015.
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: - ↑ Siobhán Wills (2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
- ↑ "Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe". B92. 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017.
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: - ↑ "Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation". OSCE. 2008. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017.
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: - ↑ S. Cross, S. Kentera, R. Vukadinovic, R. Nation (2013). Shaping South East Europe's Security Community for the Twenty-First Century: Trust, Partnership, Integration. Springer. p. 169. ISBN 9781137010209. https://books.google.com/books?id=el-YZHB8hzYC&pg=PP1. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
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: - ↑ The Guardian, "Kosovo, drugs and the West". Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
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: - ↑ "ICTY – TPIY : Judgement List". icty.org. Archived from the original on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
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: - ↑ "ICTY.org" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
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: - ↑ "ICTY.org" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
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: - ↑ "Second Amended Indictment – Limaj et al" (PDF). Icty.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
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: - ↑ "Kosovo ex-PM Ramush Haradinaj cleared of war crimes". BBC News. 29 November 2012. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318.
- ↑ "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Expert Evaluation" (PDF). Kosovo Memory Book 1998-2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
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: - ↑ ""Wounds that burn our souls": Compensation for Kosovo's wartime rape survivors, but still no justice". Amnesty International. 13 December 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
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: - ↑ "Resolution 1244 (1999)". BBC News. 17 June 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm.
- ↑ European Stability Initiative (ESI): The Lausanne Principle: Multiethnicity, Territory and the Future of Kosovo's Serbs (.pdf) Archived 24 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, 7 June 2004.
- ↑ Coordinating Centre of Serbia for Kosovo-Metohija: Principles of the program for return of internally displaced persons from Kosovo and Metohija.
- ↑ Herscher 2010, p. 14.
- ↑ András Riedlmayer. "Introduction in Destruction of Islamic Heritage in the Kosovo War, 1998–1999" (PDF). p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2018.
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: - ↑ Rausch & Banar 2006, p. 246.
- ↑ Egleder 2013, p. 79.
- ↑ "UN frustrated by Kosovo deadlock Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ", BBC News, 9 October 2006.
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: - ↑ Southeast European Times (10 July 2007). "UN Security Council remains divided on Kosovo". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2009.
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: - ↑ James Dancer (30 March 2007). "A long reconciliation process is required". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008.
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: - ↑ Simon Tisdall (13 November 2007). "Bosnian nightmare returns to haunt EU". The Guardian (UK). https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2209907,00.html.
- ↑ "Europe, Q&A: Kosovo's future". BBC News. 11 July 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm.
- ↑ "OSCE Mission in Kosovo – Elections Archived 9 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine ", Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
- ↑ "Power-sharing deal reached in Kosovo Archived 25 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine", BBC News, 21 February 2002.
- ↑ "Publicinternationallaw.org" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
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: - ↑ "Kosovo gets pro-independence PM Archived 8 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine", BBC News, 9 January 2008.
- ↑ EuroNews: Ex-guerilla chief claims victory in Kosovo election Archived 6 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 18 November 2007.
- ↑ "Kosovo MPs proclaim independence Archived 15 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine", BBC News Online, 17 February 2008.
- ↑ BBC News Archived 3 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
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: - ↑ "Serbia claims Sierra Leone has withdrawn Kosovo recognition". Prishtina Insight. 3 March 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
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: - ↑ Kostreci, Keida (5 September 2020). "US-Brokered Serbia-Kosovo Deal a 'Step Forward' But Challenges Remain". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
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: - ↑ "Republic of Kosovo – IMF Staff Visit, Concluding Statement". Imf.org. 24 June 2009. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
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: - ↑ "World Bank Cauntries". Archived from the original on 16 July 2006.
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: - ↑ "Kosovo Serbs convene parliament; Pristina, international authorities object". SETimes.com. 30 June 2008. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
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: - ↑ "Advisory Proceedings | International Court of Justice". icj-cij.org. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
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: - ↑ "Serbia and Kosovo reach EU-brokered landmark accord". BBC News. 19 April 2013. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22222624.
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: - ↑ "Serbia, Kosovo agree on implementation of EU-backed agreement to normalize ties". Anadolu Agency. 19 March 2023. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/serbia-kosovo-agree-on-implementation-of-eu-backed-agreement-to-normalize-ties/2849709.
- ↑ Perritt, Henry H. Jr. (2009). The Road to Independence for Kosovo: A Chronicle of the Ahtisaari Plan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139479431. https://books.google.com/books?id=WX4hAwAAQBAJ&q=kosovo%20no%20official%20religion&pg=PA167.
- ↑ Naamat, Talia; Porat, Dina; Osin, Nina (2012). Legislating for Equality: A Multinational Collection of Non-Discrimination Norms. Volume I: Europe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-9004226128. https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo%20constitution%20article%207&pg=PA235. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
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: - ↑ Phillips, David L. (2012). Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention. MIT Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-26230-512-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA211. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
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: - ↑ Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 26 March 2007, Annex, http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/retrieveattachments?openagent&shortid=YZHG-6ZNTVS&file=Full_Report.pdf
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: - ↑ Template:Cite act
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External links[]
- President of Kosovo – (in Albanian)
- Prime Minister of Kosovo – (in Albanian)
- Parliament of Kosovo – (in Albanian)
- EULEX – (in English)
- Kosovo at The World Factbook by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Template:Kosovo topics
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Coordinates: 42°35′N 21°00′E / 42.583°N 21.000°E